add old post about random points

content/rnd/random_points/index.md

@@ -0,0 +1,512 @@
++++
+title = "Right and wrong ways to pick random points inside a sphere"
+slug = "not-rand-but-rand-y"
+date = "2018-07-22"
+updated = "2018-11-29"
+[taxonomies]
+tags = [
+    "fun",
+    "rust",
+    "raytracing",
+    "statistics",
+    "profiling",
+    "random"
+]
++++
+
+## Last things first
+
+I'm going to cut to the chase: I could not find a way to choose
+uniformly distributed random points inside the volume of a unit sphere that was
+faster than picking one in the 8-unit cube, testing to see if it was inside the
+unit-sphere, and trying again if it wasn't -- but I did come real close. But
+that's getting ahead of myself. Before we come to the stunning conclusion, there
+are many rabbit holes and digressions awaiting.
+
+## First things first
+
+A couple months ago, I started working my way through a nice little book called
+*[Ray Tracing in One
+Weekend](https://in1weekend.blogspot.com/2016/01/ray-tracing-in-one-weekend.html)*,
+which all the cool kids are doing, it seems. Which makes sense, because making
+pretty pictures is fun.
+
+Anyway, around midway through, you get to the point where you're rendering some
+spheres that are supposed to act as [diffuse
+reflectors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffuse_reflection), like a subtly
+fuzzy mirror[^1]. This involves performing a task that is, in slightly technical
+words, randomly choosing a point from uniformly distributed set of points inside
+the volume of the unit sphere (the sphere with a radius of 1). The book
+describes a method of doing so that involves picking three uniformly distributed
+points inside the 8-unit cube (whose corners go from *(-1, -1, -1)* to *(+1, +1,
++1)*),
+
+![8-unit cube](./8unit_cube.png)
+
+testing to to see if the point so described has a length less than 1.0,
+returning it if it does, tossing it and trying again if it doesn't. In
+pseudo-Python code, it looks like this:
+
+``` python
+while True:
+    point = Point(random(-1, 1), random(-1, 1), random(-1, 1))
+    if length(point) < 1:
+        return point # victory!
+    else:
+        pass # do nothing, pick a new random point the next roll through
+             # the loop
+```
+
+This seems like it might be wasteful, because you don't know how many times
+you'll have to try generating a random point before you luck out by making a
+valid one. But, you can come up with a pretty confident guess based on the
+relative volumes. We know that the 8-unit cube is 8 cubic units in volume, since
+its sides are 2 units long (from -1 to +1). Also, the name is a dead
+giveaway. It's obviously larger than the unit sphere, because the latter is
+contained within the former, shown pinkly below:
+
+![unit sphere](./unit_sphere.png)
+The sphere touches the cube at the center of each cubic face.
+
+In three dimensions, the volume of a sphere is ```4/3
+π r^3```, or "four-thirds times Pi times the radius cubed". By definition, the
+unit sphere's radius is one, leaving us with 4/3 π, or about 4.1888. So if you
+had a four-dimensional dart you were throwing at an 8-unit three-dimensional
+cubic dartboard with an equal chance of hitting any particular single point inside
+it, your chance of hitting one inside the unit sphere is (4.1888)/8 or about
+52%. Meaning that on average, you have to try just a smidge less than twice
+before you get lucky. That also means that we're basically generating six random
+numbers each time.
+
+I wanted to know if it were possible to randomly select a valid point *by
+construction*, meaning, at the end of the process, I'd know that the point was
+chosen from the uniformly-distributed set of random points inside the unit
+sphere and could be used without having to check it. If you've been using it to
+implement the raytracer from the book and you've done it right, at the end of
+Chapter 7 you get an image that looks like this:
+
+![matte gray spheres](./chapter7.png)
+Technically, this is an image of a small ball sitting on top of a larger ball
+that's made of the same material. They're both matte gray, and are just
+reflecting the image of the sky from the background.
+
+## The first wrong way
+
+The first obvious but wrong way to choose a random point *(x, y, z)*, where x, y,
+and z are uniformly distributed random numbers, *normalize* its length to 1 in
+order to place it on the surface of the unit sphere, then *scale* it by some
+random factor *r* that is less than 1 (but more than 0). In pseudo-Python code,
+
+``` python
+point = Point(random(-1, 1),
+              random(-1, 1),
+              random(-1, 1))
+
+point = point / length(point) # normalize length to 1
+
+point = point * random(0, 1)  # randomly scale it to the interior of the unit sphere
+
+return point
+```
+
+There are actually two things wrong with this, but first, a brief digression
+into some math-ish stuff.
+
+### Length of a point?
+
+Do you remember how to calculate the length of a right triangle's hypotenuse with Pythagoras'
+Theorem? You know, *a-squared plus b-squared equals c-squared*?
+
+![right triangle](./right_triangle.png)
+
+What if we replaced *a* with *x* and interpreted it as a coordinate on the
+horizontal axis, with an origin at 0? Similarly, replace *b* with *y*, and think
+of it as a 0-origined coordinate on a vertical axis. If you now have not a
+triangle but instead a two-dimensional point at the [Cartesian
+coordinate](https://www.mathsisfun.com/data/cartesian-coordinates.html) *(x, y)*, what is
+*c*? It's now the *length* of the point.
+
+![length of the point (x, y)](./2d_point_length.png)
+The length here is the square root of 25 plus 16, or about 6.4.
+
+That's all well and good, you may say, but what about a point in THREE
+dimensions?? It turns out the same trick works, you just do
+
+![Pythagoras in 3D](./pythagoras_length.png)
+
+![Length of a point in 3D](./3d_point_length.png)
+
+So if we have a point *(3, 1, 2)*, its length is the square root of 3^2 + 1^2 +
+2^2 which is the square root of fourteen, which is about 3.74. What if we wanted
+to make it so that it was pointing in the same direction from the origin, but
+the length was 1? That's called *normalizing*, and is done by dividing each
+coordinate by the length. Below, the point P'[^2] has the same direction as point P,
+but the length of P' is 1.
+
+![normalized 3D point](./3d_point_normalized.png)
+
+Now, we could have chosen to multiply each component coordinate by a number
+other than the reciprocal of the length of P to make P'. No matter what number
+we chose (as long as it was greater than zero), it would still point in the same
+direction as P, but its length would be something else. This operation, keeping
+the direction but changing the length by multiplying each coordinate by some
+number, is called *scaling*. Normalizing is just scaling by the reciprocal of
+the length.
+
+## OK, back to being wrong about constructing random points
+
+So, the first obvious way is to pick a random, uniformly distributed point
+inside the 8-unit cube, change its length so that it lies on the surface of the
+unit sphere, then scale it by some random amount so that it's somewhere in the
+interior of the sphere. Here's what it looks like when you do that:
+
+![first wrong image](./chapter7-normed_cube_point.png)
+
+Hmm.... close... Let's see our reference, correct image again:
+
+![matte gray spheres](./chapter7.png)
+
+The reference image has a much softer shadow under the smaller ball, meaning the
+edge is less distinctly defined, than the image using the first wrong technique
+for generating random points. The experimental shadow also seems to be smaller
+than the reference one, but it's hard to tell for sure given the diffuse way the
+correct shadow dissipates. Still, something is obviously wrong.[^3]
+
+## The first obviously wrong thing about the first obvious wrong way
+
+Let's look again at the unit sphere inside the 8-unit cube:
+
+![unit sphere](./unit_sphere.png)
+
+Taking a moment to become unblinded by the brilliance of the diagram, we can see
+that if we're taking a truly random point inside the cube, and if the point
+happens to not be inside the unit sphere (which, as you know, happens about half
+the time), it's a lot more likely that the invalid point is in the direction of
+one of the eight corners, than near the center of the cubic face, because
+there's a lot more non-sphere space there. So what would it mean, on average,
+for us to not throw those points away, but instead normalize them so that they
+have a length of 1 and are on the surface of the unit sphere? You'd have eight
+"hot spots" on the sphere's surface where points would be more likely to be
+found, and your surface distribution would not be uniform.
+
+### You keep saying "uniformly distributed"; what does that mean?
+
+I've been meaning to take a brief aside to talk about what I mean by "uniformly
+distributed", or, "random". In everyday speech, people usually take "random" to
+mean, "each distinct event in a set of related events has an equal probability
+of happening." Examples are rolls of fair dice or flipping a fair coin; ones and
+sixes and fives and fours and twos and threes should each come up 1/6 the time,
+heads and tails should be 50/50. When this happens, you say that the values are
+*uniformly distributed*, or they have a *uniform distribution*.
+
+Just because we usually want to talk about random events that happen with a
+uniform distribution doesn't mean that non-uniform distributions are
+unimportant. One of the most important and useful distributions is called the
+[Standard, or Normal,
+Distribution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_distribution). Another name
+is the "Gaussian Distribution", but really, it's Normal when it's a Gaussian
+distribution whose expected value is 0 with a [standard
+deviation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_deviation) of 1. It looks like
+this:
+
+![normal distribution](./Standard_deviation_diagram.svg.png)
+*taken from the wikipedia page on "standard deviation"*
+
+A good way of thinking about distributions is, if you pretend that they're like
+a one-dimensional (numberline) dartboard, and you throw a bunch of darts at
+them, then the distribution is the chance that the dart lands within the given
+interval. When it's uniform, the line is a straight horizontal line at some
+height; if the height were 1, the odds are 100%, and if the line were at 0, the
+odds are 0%, but the take-away is that each point on the numberline-dartboard
+would be equally likely to be hit by a dart in a uniform distribution. If your
+dart throws were normally distributed, you'd be hitting near the middle about
+40% of the time; hit within the interval -1 to +1 about 68% of the time, and
+within -3 to +3 like 99% of the time. There's technically no theoretical limit
+to the magnitude of a normally distributed random value. Your dart could land at
+like -1,000,000, but the odds are really, really, *really* low.
+
+### The Normal Distribution to the rescue!
+
+Early on in my search for methods for choosing a random point inside a sphere,
+I'd seen a fancy Javascript math font formula on like math.stackexchange.com[^4]
+that looked something like this,
+
+![formula for constructing uniform random points inside a
+sphere](./too_soon_normals.png)
+*note: this formula doesn't make total sense so don't worry too hard about the
+details; it's meant to reflect the fact of my own confusion about it making it
+hard to remember it accurately*
+
+but it was too soon in my search, so I'd not become familiar with the
+distinction between differently distributed sets of random values, and all I
+took from it immediately was that they were scaling a nomalized point. Later,
+after grasping that it was incorrect to just normalize points whose coordinates were
+uniformly distributed, I read somewhere else[^5] something like, "Three
+independantly selected Gaussian variables, when normalized, will be uniformly
+distributed on the unit sphere,"[^6] and it clicked what those ".. = N"s meant: they
+were random values sampled from the Normal Distribution. I quickly updated my
+code to something like the following:
+
+``` python
+point = Point(random(0, 1, gaussian=True), # first arg is expected val,
+                                           # second is standard deviation
+              random(0, 1, gaussian=True),
+              random(0, 1, gaussian=True))
+
+point = point / length(point) # normalize length to 1
+
+point = point * random(0, 1)  # randomly scale it to the interior of the unit sphere
+
+return point
+```
+
+As you can see, it's basically exactly the same as the previous code, except our
+initial *x*, *y*, and *z* component coordinates are random values with a
+Gaussian distribution, instead of a uniform distribution. I eagerly re-ran the
+render, and it produced the following image:
+
+![gaussian variables incorrectly
+scaled](./chapter7-incorrectly_scaled_point.png)
+
+Which.. looks... a LOT like the previous one, which was wrong. If anything, the
+shadow is darker and sharper than the previous wrong one, so it's even MORE
+wrong now. Which brings us to
+
+## The second wrong thing about all previous wrong things
+
+Those of you who are, unlike me, **not** infested with brain worms may have been
+wondering to yourselves, *What the heck was up with the "1/3" next to the "U" in
+that awesomely hand-written formula from just a second ago? Shouldn't there be a
+term in the code that reflects whatever that might mean?* You would be right to
+wonder that. That means, "take the cube root of a uniform random number".
+
+Because of the brain worms, though, I did not at first make that
+connection. However, luckily for me, at the time I was trying to figure all this
+out, I was hanging out with my friends [Allen](http://www.allenhemberger.com/)
+and [Mike](https://twitter.com/mfrederickson), two incredibly creative, smart,
+and curious people, and who had started to be taken in by this problem I was
+having. Both of them are highly skilled and talented professional visual effects
+artists, and have good eyes for seeing when images are wrong, so this was right
+up their alley.
+
+Mike suggested taking a look directly at the random points being generated, so I
+changed my program to also print out each randomly generated point in a format
+that Mike could import into
+[Houdini](https://www.sidefx.com/products/houdini-fx/) in order to visualize
+them. When he did, it was super obvious that the points were incorrectly distributed,
+because they were mostly clustered very close to the center of the sphere,
+instead of being evenly spread out throughout the volume of it.
+
+Incredibly, even this wasn't enough for me to connect the dots. I wound up going
+on a convoluted journey through trying to understand how to generate the right
+probability distribution to compensate for the fact that as distance from the
+center increases, the amount of available space drastically increases. Increases
+as the cube of the radius. If only there were an inverse operation for cubing
+something...
+
+I don't know what it finally was, but the whole, "volume goes up as radius
+cubed" and "U to the 1/3 power" and probably Mike saying, "What about the
+cube root?" gestalt made me realize: I needed to take the cube root of the
+uniformly distributed random scaling factor! I changed the code to do that, and
+handed Mike a new set of data to visualize. He put together this spiffy
+animation showing the effect of taking the cube root of the random number and
+then scaling the points with that, instead of just scaling them by a uniform
+random number (ignore the captions embedded in the image and just notice how the
+distrubition changes):
+
+![animation of points being
+redistributed](./sphere_points3.gif)
+
+You can see pretty clearly how the points are clustered near the origin, where
+there are a lot fewer possible places to be, vs. when using the cube root. Taking the
+cube root of the uniformly distributed random number between 0 and 1 "pushes"
+it away from the origin; check out a graph of the cube root of *x* between 0 and
+1:
+
+![graph of cube root between 0 and
+1](./cbrt_function.png)
+
+This shows that if you randomly got, say, 0.2, it would get pushed to near
+0.6. But if you got something close to 1, it won't go past 1. In other words,
+this changes the distribution from uniform to a Power Law distribution; thanks
+to [this
+commenter](https://lobste.rs/s/bkjqjc/right_wrong_ways_pick_random_points#c_lieynp)
+on lobste.rs!
+
+Anyway, the proof, of course, is in the pudding, which is weird, because how did
+it get there. Anyway, when I ran the render with the updated code, it produced
+the following pretty picture, which we all agreed looked right:
+
+![correctly rendered
+image](./chapter7-correctly_scaled_point.png)
+
+Time to celebrate!
+
+## Not so fast
+
+Although this new method of randomly choosing points within the unit sphere with
+a uniform distribution seemed to be correct, I noticed that my renders were a
+little slower. By which I meant, about 50% slower, so like 13 seconds instead
+of 9. This wasn't yet unacceptably slow in any absolute sense, but one of the
+reasons I wanted to try to do this by construction was to do it less
+wastefully. In general with programming, that means, "faster". Taking 150% of
+the time was not less wasteful. But where was the extra work being done?
+
+I knew that generating a Gaussian random number would be more work than a
+uniformly distributed one, but didn't think it would be THAT much more. It turns
+out that it takes almost twice as long to make a Gaussian one than a uniform one for
+my system[^7]. With the textbook method of generating and testing to see if you should
+keep it, you'll have to generate almost six uniformly distributed random
+numbers. With our constructive method, we have to generate three Gaussian
+values, plus one uniform one, for an effective cost of seven uniform random
+number generations. Hmm, so, not really a win there, random-number-generation-wise.
+
+The only other expensive thing we're doing is taking a cube root[^8], and
+indeed, almost half the time of running the new code is spent performing that
+operation!  I suspected this might be the case; I figured that even the square
+root would have direct support by the hardware of the CPU, but the cube root
+would have to be done "in software", which means, "slowly". But I know that
+there are some tricks you can pull if you're willing to trade accuracy for
+speed.
+
+A [quick and dirty implementation of "fast cube
+root"](http://www.hackersdelight.org/hdcodetxt/acbrt.c.txt) later, and I got the
+following image:
+
+![correct image with fast cube
+root](./chapter7-fast_cube_root.png)
+
+which looked pretty good! And after benchmarking, it was... ***ALMOST*** as fast
+as the original method from the book. Still more wasteful, and technically less
+accurate (the name of the page I got the algorithm from is "approximate cube
+root", and the function is most inaccurate in the region near zero, sometimes
+wrong by over 300%).
+
+## Lessons learned
+
+This really has been a long and twisted voyage of distractions for me. For as
+long as this post is, it's really only scratching the surface on most of the
+material, and omitting quite a bit of other stuff completely. Things I've left
+out completely:
+
+* going into detail on the fast cube root; I had a bunch of graphs of things
+  like the absolute and percentage error values for it vs. the native "correct"
+  cube root, and will probably attempt to improve my implementation in the
+  future to work better for values close to zero and write that up.
+
+* Going into detail on how to generate random Gaussian numbers. The most common
+  way that I see referenced is called the [Box-Muller
+  Transform](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Box%E2%80%93Muller_transform), and it
+  requires first generating two uniform random values then doing some
+  trigonometry with them, which would be a very expensive operation for a
+  computer to do. But there are [clever ways](https://arxiv.org/abs/1403.6870)
+  to generate them that are almost as fast as generating uniformly distributed
+  ones; [the random number library I'm
+  using](https://docs.rs/rand/0.5.4/rand/distributions/struct.StandardNormal.html)
+  is pretty clever in that way. There's still room for improvement, though!
+
+* Details on using ```cargo bench``` to benchmark my algorithms, which is
+  intrinsic to [Rust](https://www.rust-lang.org/en-US/), the hip new-ish
+  language from Mozilla, the web browser people. This would be of interest to
+  programming nerds like me.
+
+* You can generalize spheres to more than three dimensions; for example, in 4D,
+  it's called a [glome](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3-sphere). As the number
+  of dimensions increases, it becomes less and less likely that a randomly
+  selected point from the enclosing cube will be inside the sphere, so the
+  "rejection sampling" method of the text becomes more and more slow compared to
+  the various constructive techniques.
+
+* Yet MORE ways to do this task, and how I might be able to get a constructive
+  technique to actually be faster, and hot-rodding software in general.
+
+Some of these will come up in the near future, in more blog posts. Some will
+just have to be taken up by someone else, or never at all (or already
+exhaustively covered by smarter people than I, of course). Most of all, though,
+I've been surprised and delighted by how rich and deep this problem is, and I
+hope some of that has come through here.
+
+I also want to give huge thanks to Allen and Mike, who were both extremely
+supportive of cracking this nut in person and over email. They said figuring
+this out should lead to the mother of all blog posts, so I hope this isn't a
+disappointment. No pressure all around!
+
+## da code
+
+Not that it's of that much interest to most, but of course, my code is freely
+available. See https://github.com/nebkor/weekend-raytracer/ for the repository,
+and take a look at
+https://github.com/nebkor/weekend-raytracer/blob/random_points_blog_post/src/lib.rs
+to see the implementations of the different techniques, right and wrong, from
+this post.
+
+Eventually, I'll be parallelizing the code, and possibly attempting to use the
+GPU. But before then, I need to finish the last couple chapters of this book,
+and maybe chase fewer rabbits until I've done that :)
+
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+[^1]: A more common name for this is that it's a Lambertian surface or
+    material. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambertian_reflectance
+
+[^2]: The little single-quote mark after *P* in *P'* is pronounced "prime", so
+    the whole thing is pronounced "pee prime". "Prime" is meant to indicate
+    that the thing so annotated is derived directly from some original thing; in
+    our case, *P*. I don't know why the word "prime" is chosen to mean that;
+    something like "secondary" would make more semantic sense, but here we are,
+    stuck in Hell.
+
+[^3]: This may sound weird, but one of the most fun things about writing
+    software that makes images (or, as I and most others like to say, "pretty
+    pictures") is that when you have a bug, it shows up in a way that you might
+    not realize is wrong, or it produces an unexpected but pleasing image,
+    etc. It's fun to look at the picture, try to reason about what must have
+    happened to make it incorrect, then try to fix and re-render to see if you
+    were right.
+
+[^4]: If you want to feel like an ignorant moron, try googling for stuff like
+    "random point on sphere" and "probability distribution". I promise you, it
+    made about as much sense to me as to you, assuming it makes very little
+    sense to you on first glance. Look at this shit from
+    http://mathworld.wolfram.com/SpherePointPicking.html
+
+    ![quaternion transformation
+    obvs](./simple_quaternion.png)
+
+    I mean come ON with that. I'm trying real hard here to explain everything so
+    that even if you already know it, you'll still be entertained, and if you
+    don't, you won't run away screaming because it's all incomprehensible jargon.
+
+[^5]: OK, looks like it's the Mathworld.wolfram link from above, because right
+    below that quaternion nonsense there's
+
+    ![normalized gaussian
+    point](./mathworld_normed_point.png)
+
+    which is pretty much exactly what I remember reading.
+
+[^6]: Getting into the reason WHY three Gaussian random values will be uniformly
+    distributed on the surface of the unit sphere when normalized is a rabbit
+    hole I did not go deeply down, but I think it would be another whole thing
+    if I did. The magic phrase is "rotational invariance", if you'd like to look
+    into it.
+
+[^7]: How do I know how long it takes on my system to produce a Gaussian random
+    value vs. a uniform one? I [wrote a tiny program that generates random
+    values, either Gaussian or
+    uniform](https://github.com/nebkor/misfit_toys/tree/master/gauss_the_answer),
+    and timed how long it took to generate a a few billion values of each
+    kind. On my system, that program will take about five seconds to
+    generate and sum a billion Gaussian values, while doing the same for uniform
+    values takes less than three. Also, it turns out that the "fast" Gaussian
+    value generator technique is, like the fast way to pick a random point in
+    the sphere, to generate a random value, check to see if it's a valid
+    Gaussian one, and guess again. It seems that it takes a couple rounds of
+    that on average no matter what.
+
+[^8]: The act of normalizing the point requires a square root, but most
+    processors have pretty fast ways of calculating those, and as with the cube
+    root, there are hacks to trade accuracy for speed if desired. But my
+    processor, a 64-bit Intel CPU, has direct support for taking a square root,
+    so any hack to trade accuracy for speed is likely to simply be worse in both
+    respects.

content/sundries/presenting-julids/index.md

@@ -274,10 +274,9 @@ those crates! Feel free to steal code from me any time!
 ----
 
 [^julid-package]: The Rust crate *package's*
-    [name](https://git.kittencollective.com/nebkor/julid-rs/src/commit/e333ea52637c9fe4db60cfec3603c7d60e70ecab/Cargo.toml#L2)
+  [name](https://git.kittencollective.com/nebkor/julid-rs/src/commit/e333ea52637c9fe4db60cfec3603c7d60e70ecab/Cargo.toml#L2)
     is "julid-rs"; that's the name you add to your `Cargo.toml` file, that's how it's listed on
-    [crates.io](https://crates.io/crates/julid-rs), etc. The crate's *library*
+    [crates.io](https://crates.io/crates/julid-rs), etc. The crate's *library* [name](https://git.kittencollective.com/nebkor/julid-rs/src/commit/e333ea52637c9fe4db60cfec3603c7d60e70ecab/Cargo.toml#L32)
-    [name](https://git.kittencollective.com/nebkor/julid-rs/src/commit/e333ea52637c9fe4db60cfec3603c7d60e70ecab/Cargo.toml#L32)
     is just "julid"; that's how you refer to it in a `use` statement in your Rust program.
 
 [^httm]: Remember in *Hot Tub Time Machine*, where Rob Cordry's character, "Lew", decides to stay in